India’s Deepening Water Crisis

  Sansad TV   May 5, 2025  Add to Reading List
India’s Deepening Water Crisis

India stands at the brink of an unprecedented water emergency. With Himalayan snowfall at its lowest in over two decades and nearly 600 million citizens living under high water stress, the nation’s rivers, aquifers, and reservoirs are under immense pressure. The worsening situation, intensified by climate variability, overexploitation, pollution, and mismanagement, demands immediate and comprehensive reforms.

Key Drivers of India’s Water Crisis

1. Climate Variability and Reduced Himalayan Snowfall
Climate change is altering India’s hydrological systems. The retreat of glaciers and significant reduction in snow cover over the Hindu Kush Himalaya—down by over 23% between November 2024 and March 2025—are diminishing the flow of vital rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus. These patterns are leading to severe summer water shortages and disrupting agricultural cycles. Notably, in the first nine months of 2024, India experienced extreme weather on 93% of the days.

2. Depleting Groundwater Resources
India is the world’s largest user of groundwater, largely driven by agriculture. Unregulated extraction without sufficient recharge is draining aquifers, especially in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Between 2002 and 2021, northern India lost approximately 450 cubic kilometers of groundwater. Climate-induced shifts in rainfall patterns are expected to worsen this depletion.

3. Water-Intensive Agriculture and Misaligned Crop Choices
Legacy policies from the Green Revolution promote thirsty crops like paddy and sugarcane even in water-scarce regions. Subsidies on electricity and irrigation water further discourage efficient use. For example, large-scale rice farming in Punjab consumes over 5,300 liters of water per kilogram—an unsustainable trend in a region already facing aquifer stress.

4. Urbanization and Poor Water Infrastructure
India’s rapid and often unplanned urban growth has strained existing water infrastructure. Around 31% of urban households lack access to piped water, especially in informal settlements. Heat island effects in cities increase water demand while accelerating evaporation. Bengaluru’s near “Day Zero” scenario in 2024 is a stark reminder of looming urban water shortages.

5. Pollution and Contaminated Water Bodies
Untreated sewage, industrial waste, and chemical runoff are contaminating both surface and groundwater. The NITI Aayog reports that nearly 70% of India's water is polluted, rendering it unsafe for drinking or irrigation. Lead contamination from aging infrastructure, especially PVC pipelines, adds to health risks.

6. Fragmented Governance and Policy Incoherence
Multiple institutions and overlapping mandates have created confusion in water governance. With water under state jurisdiction but rivers flowing across boundaries, coordination is poor. Weak implementation of laws and the lack of integrated watershed-level planning hinder long-term solutions.

7. Lag in Adoption of Water-Saving Technologies
Despite the availability of water-efficient technologies like drip irrigation and smart water monitoring, their adoption remains limited. Traditional flood irrigation is still widely practiced, leading to massive water loss in agriculture. Only a few states—like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu—have shown significant uptake.

8. Destruction of Natural Recharge Zones
Encroachments on lakes, wetlands, and floodplains in urban areas have blocked natural recharge pathways. Over the last 40 years, India has lost nearly one-third of its wetlands. In Bengaluru alone, over 10,000 acres of lake land worth ₹1.5 lakh crore have been illegally occupied.

9. Water-Linked Health and Sanitation Issues
Scarce and polluted water contributes to disease outbreaks and public health crises. Around 210 million Indians still lack access to safe sanitation. Unsafe water is linked to 21% of communicable diseases, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations.

10. Escalating Water Conflicts
Competing claims over limited water sources have led to disputes at both inter-state and local levels. From the Upper Godavari tensions in Maharashtra to the water-sharing battle involving Keoladeo National Park, such conflicts underscore the growing risks of water insecurity.

Current Framework for Water Governance in India

Legal and Constitutional Provisions
Water is listed under the State List, making states primarily responsible for its management. However, inter-state rivers fall under the Union's domain, with Parliament authorized under Article 262 to adjudicate disputes. Important legislations include the Inter-State Water Disputes Act (1956) and the River Boards Act (1956).

Institutional Bodies

  • Ministry of Jal Shakti (formed in 2019) leads national water management.

  • Central Water Commission (CWC) oversees irrigation and flood control.

  • Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) handles groundwater regulation and mapping.

Key Policy Tools

  • National Water Policy (2012) encourages integrated and sustainable water use.

  • Model Groundwater Bill (2017) proposes local-level groundwater regulation.

  • Composite Water Management Index by NITI Aayog rates state performance.

  • National Aquifer Mapping Programme aims to improve understanding of groundwater dynamics.

Judicial Oversight
The Supreme Court has recognized access to clean water as a fundamental right under Article 21. Courts have been proactive in cases concerning river pollution, illegal groundwater extraction, and industrial violations.

Successful Models of Water Management

  • Mission Kakatiya (Telangana): Revives tanks for irrigation and community water management.

  • Neeru-Chettu (Andhra Pradesh): Drought-proofing initiative focusing on restoring water structures.

  • Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan (Maharashtra): Builds water conservation capacity through village-level interventions.

  • Kapil Dhara Yojana (Madhya Pradesh): Promotes water harvesting structures under MGNREGA.

  • Pani Bachao, Paise Kamao (Punjab): Offers financial incentives to save groundwater and electricity.

  • Jakhni Village (Bundelkhand, UP): Became water-resilient through community-led rainwater harvesting and sustainable agriculture.

What Can Be Done: Pathways to Water Security

1. Integrated Basin Management
Water resources must be managed holistically across entire river basins. Ecological flow in rivers, forest regeneration, and watershed protection should be core elements. Payment for ecosystem services can encourage rural communities to conserve catchments.

2. Decentralized and Participatory Governance
Empower local bodies like Panchayats and Water User Associations to manage water resources. Building local capacity and accountability systems can ensure more equitable and effective conservation.

3. Water-Smart Agriculture
Redesign agricultural incentives to favor crops with higher water productivity. Link MSP to water-use efficiency. Expand micro-irrigation systems, agroforestry, and precision farming to reduce dependency on water-intensive crops.

4. Rational Water Pricing
Introduce tiered pricing that discourages wastage while safeguarding basic access. Use volumetric pricing for industries and high-usage sectors. Incentivize treated wastewater use for non-drinking purposes like cleaning and gardening.

5. Urban Water Resilience
Urban planning should prioritize green infrastructure, protect recharge areas, and develop stormwater harvesting systems. Cities need to implement smart metering, water reuse, and leak detection at scale to build circular water economies.

6. Strengthen Groundwater Regulation
Mandatory aquifer mapping and zoning before any extraction permits. Treat groundwater as a shared community resource, not private property. Establish legal frameworks for collective aquifer management.

7. Pollution Control and Water Quality Enforcement
Strictly regulate industrial discharges and promote zero liquid discharge practices. Upgrade sewage treatment plants and mandate compliance. Protect and restore wetlands and urban lakes through legally binding measures.

8. Education and Cultural Change
Incorporate water conservation into school curricula and public campaigns. Revive traditional water wisdom and instill respect for water as a shared heritage. Mobilize citizen movements to advocate sustainable practices.

Conclusion

India’s water future hinges on its ability to reform governance, shift to sustainable practices, and empower communities. Climate change, poor planning, and unchecked exploitation have created a multifaceted crisis that requires bold, collective action. Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6—Clean Water and Sanitation—will depend on a unified effort from governments, citizens, industries, and civil society.